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Before presenting the poetry forms, let's review word rhyme in a Vietnamese poem.
Word rhyme in Vietnamese is similar to word rhyme in English with one notable difference. Words that rhyme should belong in the same tonal group, that is, either the neutral-falling tone group (vần bằng) or the rising-heavy tone group (vần trắc). Please refer to the previous essay, "About the Vietnamese Language" for an explanation of tonal group. Rhyming does not have to be strict. If the vowel parts of the words sound fairly similar, the words are considered rhymed with each other. Below are some examples of words that rhyme:
1. hoa (flower), ca (sing), cha (dad), quà (gift), nhòa (fade)
2. lá (leaf), hóa (change), lạ (strange), quả (fruit), tỏa (emanate)
3. hát (sing), quát (yell), nhạt (light), đạt (achieve), rắc (sprinkle)
4. xe (car), hè (summer), que (stick), quê (countryside) , tê (numb)
5. lo (worry), to (big), vô (enter), nho (grape), mơ (dream)
6. đó (that), rõ (clear), hổ (tiger), nhỏ (small), lọ (vase), chỗ (place)
7. mỹ (beauty), lý (reason), tí (little), quý (precious)
8. người (person), trời (god/sky), tươi (fresh), đồi (hill)
Some poetry forms in Vietnam have a fixed number of words per line with specific rules covering rhyme and rhythm. Rhythm rules for a specfic poetry form may be unstated if the rules are transparently obvious to the native speaker. Tonal groups play an important role in the rhythmic flow of a verse.
• The 6-8 form (lục bát):
The most popular Vietnamese poetry form is the 6-8 poetry form. The rules for this form are as follows:
1. The 6-8 poem consists of multiple 6-8 couplets.
2. Each couplet consists of two lines. The first line has six words or syllables, and the second line has eight.
3. In a couplet, the sixth word in the second line should rhyme with the last word in the first line.
4. To join couplets together, the last word in the first line of the following couplet should rhyme with the last word in the preceding couplet.
Various rhythmic rules are implicit when they are transparently obvious to the native speaker. If the rules are broken, the line loses its melodious quality and sounds awkward. Those hidden rules are:
1. The last word of each line belongs to the neutral-falling tone group (vần bằng).
2. The sixth word in the second line of a couplet belongs in the neutral-falling tone group (vần bằng).
3. The second word of each line almost always belongs in the neutral-falling tone group (vần bằng).
4. The fourth word in each line belongs to the rising-heavy tone group (vần trắc).
5. In the second line of each couplet, if the sixth word has a flat normal tone, then the last word of the same line should have a falling accent mark tone, and vice versa.
Variations exist for the 6-8 poetry form. Some folk verses use rhyme at the fourth word of the second line in a couplet to rhyme with the last word of the preceding line. Minor deviations from the 6-8 verse form
are also allowed. Occassionally, the second line in a couplet may have
more than eight words, usually nine. It's also normal, although not very common, to see the poem ending on a half-couplet, that is, a line with six words.
An example of a few verses in a 6-8 poem:
Trăm năm trong cõi người ta (1a)
Chữ tài, chữ mệnh khéo là (1b) ghét nhau (2a)
Trải qua bao cuộc bể dâu (2b)
Những điều trông thấy mà đau (2c) đớn lòng...
The words indicated by (1a) and (1b) rhyme with each other. The words indicated by (2a), (2b), and (2c) rhyme with each other.
• The two-seven, six-eight (song thất lục bát) form:
Literally translated, “song thất lục bát” is “two seven, six eight” in English. A poem of this form consists of multiple stanzas, each stanza has the following pattern: two lines of seven syllables each, followed by a 6-8 couplet. The rules for this form are as follows:
1. Contains one or more stanzas
2. Each stanza has four lines. The first two lines have seven words each. We will call this a 7-7 couplet. The last two lines are a 6-8 couplet.
3. In a stanza, the last word in the the third line (the first line of the 6-8 couplet) should rhyme with the last word of the preceding line (the second line of the 7-7 couplet).
4. In a stanza, the fifth word of the second line of the 7-7 couplet should rhyme with the last word of the first line of the 7-7 couplet.
5. In a stanza, the last word of the first line in the 7-7 couplet should belong in the rising-heavy tone group (vần trắc).
6. In a stanza, the last word of the second line of the 7-7 couplet should belong in the low-falling tone group (vần bằng).
7. Multiple stanzas are connected through rhymes. The fifth word of the first line (7-7 couplet) should rhyme with the last word of the preceding stanza.
A passage taken from the classic poem “Chinh Phụ Ngâm”:
Thuở trời đất nổi cơn gió bụi (1a)
Khách má hồng nhiều nỗi (1b) truân chuyên (2a)
Xanh kia thăm thẳm từng trên (2b)
Vì ai gây dựng cho nên (2c) nỗi này (3a)
Trống Trường Thành lung lay (3b) bóng nguyệt (4a)
Khói Cam Tuyền mờ mịt (4b) thức mây
Chín tầng gươm báu trao tay
Nửa đêm truyền hịch đợi ngày xuất quân
In the first stanza, (1b) rhymes with (1a), (2b) rhymes with (2a) and (2c) rhymes with (2b). The second stanza joins with the first stanza through the rhymes of (3b) and (3a).
• The Seven-Word, Four-Line (thất ngôn tứ tuyệt) form:
Literally translated, "thất ngôn tứ tuyệt" is "seven words, four lines". This form was invented and perfected during the Tang Dynasty of China, over a thousand years ago. The poem consists of four lines, each line contains seven words. The rules for the most popular variation of this form are as follows:
1. The last word of the second line is the key rhyme for this form and it belongs to the neutral-falling tone group (vần bằng).
2. The last words in the second and fourth lines should rhyme, in other words, the second line and the fourth line should rhyme.
3. In the first line, If the last word belongs to the neutral-falling tone group (vần bằng), and it usually is, it should rhyme with the key rhyme of the poem.
4. The last word of the third line needs to belong to the rising-heavy tone group and usually have a different rhyme than the second line.
5. The following two symmetric rules, (5a) and (5b), are based on the rhythmic flow of a seven-word line. Following these rules will make the line sound more melodious. Note the symmetry of the tones of the words with regards to the word order, starting with the tone- deterministic second word in a verse line.
a. In each line, if the second word belongs in the neutral-falling tone group, then the fourth word needs to belong in the rising-heavy tone group and the sixth word needs to belong in the same tonal group as the second word. (2nd: neutral-falling, 4th: rising-heavy, 6th: neutral-falling), (Bằng Trắc Bằng) or (BTB).
b. In each line, if the second word belongs in the rising-heavy tone group, then the fourth word needs to belong in the neutral-falling tone group, and the sixth word needs to belong in the same tonal group as the second word. (2nd: rising-heavy, 4th: neutral-falling, 6th: rising-heavy), (Trắc Bằng Trắc) or (TBT). This is the reverse of 5a.
6. The following rules, (6a) and (6b) provides symmetry to the structure of the poem as a whole.
a. If the second word in the first line belongs to the neutral-falling tone group, then the second word in the second and third lines need to belong to the rising-heavy tone group, and the second word in the fourth line needs to belong to the neutral-falling tone group, same as the first line. This is often denoted as (BTTB) where 'B' stands for neutral-falling tone group of the second word in each line, and 'T' stands for the rising-heavy tone group of the second word in each line.
b. This rule is similar to rule (6a), but the tonal groups are reversed. If the second word in the first line belongs to the rising-heavy tone group, then the second word in the second and third lines need to belong to the neutral-falling tone group, and the second word in the fourth line needs to belong to the same tone group as the first line. This is often denoted as (TBBT) rule. This is the reverse of 6a.
An example of a thất ngôn tứ tuyệt poem using the (6a) rule:
Bài thơ (Neutral-Falling) hạnh ngộ đã trao tay
Ôi mộng (Rising-Heavy) nào hơn giấc mộng này
Mùi phấn (Rising-Heavy) em thơm mùa hạ cũ
Nửa như (Neutral-Falling) hoài vọng nửa như say (by Đinh Hùng)
Note the balanced symmetry of the tonal groups used for the second word of each line.
An example of a thất ngôn tứ tuyệt poem using the (6b) rule:
Em đến (Rising-Heavy) với dòng suối nhạc thơ
Cao sơn (Neutral-Falling) lưu thủy tự bao giờ
Âm ba (Neutral-Falling) nào vọng nơi tiềm thức
Đưa mộng (Rising-Heavy) hồn ta đến Cõi Mơ (by VuongThanh)
Note the balanced symmetry of the tonal groups used for the second word of each line.
• The Seven-Word Eight-Line (Thất Ngôn Bát Cú) Form:
This poetry form is also invented during the Tang Dynasty of China. It's structure is very symmetrical and its rules are fairly complex compared to the other poetry forms. The rules for the most common variation of this form are as follows :
1. All the rules for the "Seven Words, Four Lines" poetry form applies to this form.
2. The 1st, 2nd, 4th, 6th, and 8th lines rhyme with each other, that is, the last words in those line rhyme with each other. The 3rd line and the 5th line belong in the rising-heavy tone group and the last words in those lines usually have different rhymes than the 1st line.
3. The poem has two main forms:
a. 1st line, 2nd word: Neutral-Falling tone
2nd line, 2nd word: Rising-Heavy tone
3rd line, 2nd word: Rising-Heavy tone
4th line, 2nd word: Neutral-Falling tone
5th line, 2nd word: Neutral-Falling tone
6th line, 2nd word: Rising-Heavy tone
7th line, 2nd word: Rising-Heavy tone
8th line, 2nd word: Neutral-Falling tone
b. Similar to (3a) above, just reverse the tonal groups for the 2nd word of each line.
4. The third and fourth line are a 7-7 couplet. The corresponding words of each line in the couplet needs to "match" each other. For example, if the nth word on the third line is a noun, adjective, pronoun, etc., then the nth word on the fourth line need to be of the same type respectively. If the nth word on the third line is a word that describes a quantity, or some aspect of nature, then the corresponding nth word in the fourth line should also belong to the same word category. Compare and contrast technique is often used to parallelize the second line with the first line.
5. Similarly, the fifth and sixth lines form a second couplet with the second line matching the first line, word by word, as described above.
An example of a famous poem, “Crossing Ngang Pass” by Bà Huyện Thanh Quan, a famous historical figure, written in this form. Note the compare-and-contrast couplets.
Bước tới đèo Ngang, bóng xế tà
Cỏ cây chen đá, lá chen hoa
Lom khom dưới núi, tiều vài chú
Lác đác bên sông, chợ mấy nhà
Nhớ nước đau lòng con quốc quốc
Thương nhà mỏi miệng cái gia gia
Dừng chân đứng lại, trời non nước
Một mảnh tình riêng, ta với ta
English translation:
As I walk toward the Ngang Pass, the sun had just set
Grasses and plants crowd the rocks, leaves mingle with flowers
Some wood-cutters, at the mountain’s foot, bent down at work
A few shops lie scattered by the riverside
Longing for motherland, the “Quốc” bird cries out its heart
Longing for home, the “Gia” bird unceasingly cries for home
Stopping here, gazing at the mount’n, river, and sky
My heart’s full of feelings, with only I and I …
• The Five-Word Poetry Form:
This poetry form consists of one or more stanzas. Each stanza usually have four lines, each line five words. There are various variations on rhyming for this poetry form. Here are some popular variations:
• The first, second, and fourth lines have the same rhyme and belong to the falling-neutral tone group. The third line ends with a rising-heavy tone.
• The first and third lines have rising-heavy tones and the same rhyme. The second and fourth line have neutral-falling tones and the same rhyme.
• This form is considered to be free-form. There’s no strict rules with regards to the tonality of each word or the rhyme scheme for each line.
• The Eight-Word (thơ tám chữ) Poetry Form:
This poetry form is also considered to be free-form. It consists of four lines or more, each line has eight words. The lines often come in pairs that rhyme with each other. The last words in each pair alternate between the rising-heavy group and the neutral-falling tone group. A few lines taken from a poem of this form:
Khi mới lớn, tuổi mười lăm, mười bảy,
Làm học trò mắt sáng với môi tươi
Ta bước lên chân vẫn dạo bên người
Ngoài cặp sách trần ai xem cũng nhẹ !
Đời thấp thoáng qua học đường nhỏ bé
Phố phường cuộc sống mới lên hoa
Ta ngồi nghe những tiếng thị thành xa
Hồn lơ đãng mộng ra ngoài cửa lớp (by Đinh Hùng)
• The Seven-Word, Long Saga (Thất Ngôn Trường Thiên) Form:
This poetry form is also considered to be free-form. It consists of twelve lines or more, each line has seven words. The rhyming of lines are flexible. Knowing and using the appropriate tonal groups to use for the second, fourth, and sixth word in a seven word line will make the verse sounds more melodious.
Below is a few lines taken from a poem of this form:
Nhìn trăng sực tỉnh cơn trường mộng
Mới thấy người thơ một kiếp say
Say từ tia nắng trên hàng liễu
Từ tiếng chim ca buổi sáng mai
Từ giọt sương cài hoa phượng tím
Từ tờ thư viết mực chưa phai
Tào Tháo lẫy lừng trang sử khép
Còn may lưu khúc Ðoản Hành Ca
Thiên niên kỷ mới hay là cũ?
Ðường có gần hay đường vẫn xa?
Hãy gõ vào ly như kẻ ấy:
Rằng trăng, rằng gió của riêng ta (by Hà Thượng Nhân)
• Totally Free-Form Poetry (thơ tự do) Form:
There are no rules to this form. Like a blank sheet of paper without any line grids, anything can be drawn on it. Sounds easy, but actually, writing a good free-form poem can be fairly difficult, as there’s no template, no rule to provide guidance. The author needs to create his own poem’s rhythmic flow. Word rhyme in helping with the poem’s flow is very flexible and can be subtle. Rhyme can be at the beginning, middle, or end of a line or a few lines away.
Vuong Thanh, 2019 (taken from "A Garden of Vietnamese Lyrics & Verse, Volume 1")
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